Foreword by the late Vladimir Markotic:
Butler is concerned here with the ability of the Sasquatch to avoid human contact. He presents a case for "higher sensory perceptions" that he thinks may be operating in this case. While it is not necessarily certain that this is actually true, the possibility cannot easily be dismissed. The Sasquatch has so many concealment advantages--scarcity, nocturnality, good vision, and an unsettling appearance--that their ability to avoid humans may require no such explanation. Many animals are almost as difficult to locate as the Sasquatch. One can hunt for many years and never see a mountain lion, but this does not raise any question about their reality. Some inexperienced hunters will be quite unable to find game when there are several deer within 10 metres of them. Perfectly normal wild animals are able to avoid human observation with no mysterious abilities. That the Sasquatch does even better than most species, follows from their several advantages noted above. In spite of this, one should still keep an open mind about the possible avoidance mechanisms that Butler suggests here.

The Biological and Psychological Aspects of Sasquatch

The Sasquatch phenomenon is particularly attractive to investigators because it still permits the application of specific theoretical hypotheses. Many of these have been developed from a wide range of concerns and perspectives arising from a growing range of disciplines.

As any phenomenon becomes better known, the value of hypothetical frameworks becomes secondary to the value of acquiring data and making interpretations from the growing database. For example, today, armchair theories alone cannot provide us with further insights into the behavior and life history of Grizzly bears.

Increased interest in the Sasquatch by the scientific community has been in response to a growing volume of corroborative evidence. This supportive information has been difficult to analyze and to interpret in order to ensure clearly defined evolutionary and behavioral understandings.

Interpretation of data is always risky business, as is any attempt to formulate specific theories based upon evidence too slender to support it. Now the strength of the Sasquatch phenomenon lies in the volume of evidence supporting it more than in the strength of any single incident, product or selected series of events.

It is important to understand that one cannot prove a negative hypothesis. You could never prove that the Sasquatch does not exist. You could only prove that it does. Therefore, the underlying approach to any investigation of this type must be based upon a positive hypothesis with the accumulated data either supporting or falling inconclusive to that hypothesis.

The investigation of the phenomenon has been further complicated by fakery, misrepresentation of facts, and reports which placed too much dependence either on an individual's capacity for recollection of points of detail or upon the conclusions and theories of those experiencing the incident. The increasing publicity associated with the Sasquatch has also influenced the accuracy of perceptions due to "Perceptual Readiness" and "Category Accessibility." Perceptual readiness may be defined as the readiness with which one associates a stimulus input (or occurrence) with a given or preconceived category. The more accessible the category, the less input is required; that is, the more the Sasquatch is at the forefront of someone's mind, the more easily it is held accountable for any given incident. It is also true that the more accessible the category, the wider the range of input that will be accepted (almost anything can be somehow associated with the Sasquatch), and the more likely that less accessible categories, even though perhaps better fitting, will be masked. In every Sasquatch-related field expedition with which I have been associated, perceptual readiness and category accessibility was a natural and often excessively overriding influence on many expedition members.

Category accessibility has complicated our analysis of the Sasquatch phenomenon in yet another way. We have perhaps too readily drawn conclusions and formulated theories on the basis of preconceived ideas. Our categorizations have been formed on the basis of work, which was never intended to cover the subject at hand. We have developed a range of comparisons based upon associations, which were never intended to be compared. In our search for understanding we seem to have always grasped at the most accessible categories, and in doing so, we have categorized a wide range of input at the expense of perhaps masking less accessible categories which might better satisfy the available input. We have sought simple solutions to what are probably very complex problems.

There is much to be learned and applied from the accumulated database of a diverse range of disciplines. This should function as the underlying framework or our inquiry and assist us in developing our categorizations. The Sasquatch phenomenon, along with its behavioral implications, may not be closely associated with or similar to any existing group of organisms. It is not enough to simply rewrite the Mountain Gorilla story with a change in ihe principal protagonist. We must develop our categories not on preconceptions but instead upon independently acquired hypotheses derived from analysis of the information at hand. The more generalized the available data, the wider and more diverse should be the constructs of our categories. We must not mask new possibilities from our theoretical framework.

I have debated with associates on whether a Sasquatch should be classified as Hominid or Pongid. The very basis of the argument is in itself weak because it limits us to an existing "category accessibility." Why does it have to fit into either one?

All of us who have at one time or another lectured on the subject are invariably asked why no skeletal material has ever been found. To this I respond that there is an excellent chance that it already has been.

Once we have a body that can be verified as a Sasquatch, we will be able to define a new accessible category for classifying skeletal material. Perhaps in one or more museums a crowded drawer with a tag citing reference to some aberrant giant Indian will be re-evaluated and a new drawer will be established aligned with an expanded "category accessibility."

We also fall victim to category accessibility when we attempt to force the Sasquatch or the Yeti into an arbitrary affiliation with some known fossil form. Our knowledge of the evolutionary tree of higher primates may be compared to an apple tree in early winter. There is a tremendous diversity of intertwining branches and forks with only a handful of apples attached from widely assorted heights and locations. Our scarcity of fossil material is like the scattered handful of apples. We need a lot more apples. We also need a Sasquatch.

Perhaps one of the weakest areas of categories is that which attempts to explain avoidance behavior. A very real problem in the Sasquatch phenomenon is the question of how they have successfully avoided capture. Literally thousands of hunters enter Sasquatch country every year in pursuit of other quarry, and each is armed and fully capable of killing one. Others specifically pursue the Sasquatch with their high-powered rifles as proof of their intentions. Highways and roads indirectly contribute to the mortality of countless free-roaming animals; yet how has the Sasquatch managed to avoid even a single accident when highway sightings are far from uncommon? Authorities and investigators have frequently responded to "active" sites of Sasquatch encounters, finally abandoning the effort days or sometimes weeks later after long and fruitless searches.

The phenomenon is well publicized. The topic is active and popular with the news media. The financial value of an actual specimen of a Sasquatch is indisputable, and financial motives alone have driven persons to extreme efforts. Remember that we are not dealing with a circumstance far away in some remote and isolated corner of the world, requiring major financial support and months of logistical preparation. We are addressing a relatively widespread phenomenon, which practically takes place at the doorsteps of millions of people.

There remain only two feasible options: one, the Sasquatch phenomenon is purely legendary; or two, the Sasquatch exhibits a remarkable sense of avoidance behavior.

I choose to define avoidance behavior in the context of the Sasquatch phenomenon as any behavior resulting in a negative reaction, i.e., avoidance, to a stimulus involving human contact.

Traditionally, we have sought explanations based solely upon sensory capabilities, i.e., scent, visual signals, and hearing. I do not believe that a strict interpretation of these three sensory components by themselves is sufficient to account for the full range of avoidance capability, which is suggested by the Sasquatch phenomenon.

I have stated that the Sasquatch phenomenon is attractive because it still permits the application of theoretical hypotheses. I have also cautioned against the temptation of "category accessibility" and proposed that we construct our categories based not on preconceptions, but rather on analysis of the available information on hand. It is within this framework that I introduce an additional variable to our problem--the variable of "higher sensory perception" (HSP).

Higher sensory perception may be defined as any event in which information is transmitted through channels outside the capability of known sensory channels. I find the term "higher" (HSP) preferable to "extra" (ESP) because the latter implies an influence apart from an expected complement of sensory capability. Extra sensory perception is likely not "extra" after all but simply a different realm or range of consciousness, which some individuals or organisms may use more easily than other individuals or organisms. Most people think of ESP as a single "sixth sense" with which we read other's minds or predict disasters. Instead, higher sensory perceptions should be viewed as a collective category which includes not only telepathic communications but also the utilization of subliminal perceptions and such" super" sensory capabilities as an animal's sensitivity to earthquakes or the visual perception of an aura or energy field which may be the product of some form of metabolic luminescence.

The entire subject of sensory awareness reached a frontier in 1949 when we learned of the implications of echolocation in bats. Soon the influence of celestial navigation on bird migration caused us to update our textbooks. In the early 1950s, the use of electrodes in mapping the areas of the brain provided further insights into the investigation. As we progressed into the 1970s, the field of animal behavior diversified to encompass a growing interest in ethnology, and as a result, field investigators were increasingly suspecting additional sensory capabilities through their work with wolves and other predator-prey relationships. We continued to update our knowledge of sensory capabilities, and in the process, many previously held truths were discarded and sensory limitations underwent increased scrutiny. I can remember only a short time ago lecturing to my ornithology students on the poorly developed sense of smell, which was so characteristic of birds. Today we know that the organs of smell in birds are far more highly developed than formerly thought, and we now suspect that birds may rely heavily on chemical signals, as do other animals.

There are sights, smells and sounds beyond our ability to perceive, and these "higher sensory perceptions" play vital roles in the behavior of other organisms. There have long been suspicions of the existence of a so-called "sixth sense" in animals. Today we are not concerned with whether or not there is a sixth sense but rather with how many additional senses there truly are.

We still have a long way to go towards understanding even the classical five senses. It was a easy task to trace those impulses which constitute an exterior sensory message along the appropriate nerves and locate the part of the brain which receives those sensory impulses. In respect to the sense of smell, we still do not know how our olfactory receptors discriminate among different molecules in the air, or how those molecules trigger the impulses that travel to the brain.

The portion of HSP, which concerns us in our discussion of avoidance behavior, are those which center around telepathic communications. The term "telepathy" (feeling from a distance) was coined by Frederick W. Myers as early as 1882 to denote "the communication Of impressions of any kind from one mind to another, independent of the recognized channels of sense." Such lines of communication need not be voluntary on behalf of the agent or the percipient.

There is no shadow of a doubt as to the validity of some recorded experiences, which demonstrate unexplained sensory abilities, and the number of such reliable cases is certainly large enough to rule out chance. Experimental and behavioral examples of higher sensory perceptions (HSPs) are relatively easy to compile. It is our failure to understand the possible modus operandi that has led to the reluctance of so many scientists to give HSP the attention it deserves. It is awkward to deal with because it does not easily conform to existing experimental methods. We have developed a rather comfortable series of categories into which we apply observable behavioral patterns, and we have allowed the accessibility of these categories to mask alternative possibilities.

A recent book on animal communication by Professor Hubert Frings (1977) includes a representative example of this attitude. In cautioning against speculation over "other forms of energy" which may influence animal behavior, Professor Frings states,

The same is true for the so-called extra sensory perception some psychologists believe humans can use to transmit information. The means of transmission and the nature of the signals, however, are unknown, and thus many scientists doubt that ESP actually exists. As long as we cannot specify the nature of a signal, nor find overt behavior in a sender, it is impossible to test for this in animals scientifically. We should not introduce this idea into our studies, at any rate, unless all other explanations are unreasonable.

In our investigations into behavioral patterns and sensory perception there are incidents that cannot be reconciled with the way we ordinarily view our world. Often we recognize such events only when they are so unusual that they defy any explanation but the fantastic in which case they are promptly discarded. How often are these same influences at work during everyday ordinary affairs without our detecting their presence or appreciating their constant influence?

Physicist Dr. Lawrence LeShah, in his book The Medium, the Mystic and the Physicist, summarized this dilemma well when he wrote, "If we have learned one thing from science, it is that the atypical case, the unusual incident, is the one that--if looked at seriously--teaches us about all the others" (Kreps 1977:42).

Many persons who accept the concept of ESP in human beings have found it difficult to consider its application to other animals. During the past few years a growing amount of supportive evidence, as well as belief among investigators, has led to increased interest in the possibility of higher sense perceptions in other animals.

Considerable work involving higher sense perceptions in animals has been done at Duke University's Parapsychology laboratory and by Pierre Duval and Evelyn Montredon in France. Scientists also investigated the Russian animal trainer, Durov, who demonstrated to their satisfaction a telepathic communication between himself and his animals. There is enormous documentation of closely investigated animal psi-communication cases ~ such as the terrier Missie, the Elberfield horses and many others, all of which defy explanation through known sensory channels.

HSP in animals has received considerable attention from Dr. Robert L. Morris, research coordinator of the Psychical Research Foundation in Durham, North Carolina, who concluded, "The evidence from anecdote and experiment that ESP is present in other species besides our own is considerable. Results with animals are at least as positive and consistent as human results, probably much more so. The only conclusive refutation of elaborate counter-explanations involving experimenter psi, etc., is the development of a large body of interrelated facts about the exact processes involved. I think the beginnings of such may be at hand."

Since HSP is evident in the lower orders of animals as well as in man, we can assume that this is a relatively old function, not a recent development during the evolution of man. This would suggest that the control center in mammals would be located in the evolutionally older portions of the brain; in other words, in the reticular formation of the medulla and midbrain or in the limbic cortex.

The reticular formation maintains an alert, awake state that makes perception possible. All sensory input goes through this section, which then selectively alerts various parts of the cortex in response to all of the stimuli, received. Therefore, one possible explanation is that HSP stimuli are received and evaluated in the reticular formation, which then alerts the cerebral cortex that you now "know" something although you don't know how or why. The limbic cortex is phylogenetically the oldest part of the cerebral cortex. It has changed little during the evolution of mammals, but has been overshadowed by the immense growth of the neocortex (that area of the cerebral cortex responsible for the higher functions of the nervous system: memory, learning, judgment, language, etc.). Recent investigations of previously unexplained sensory phenomena such as instinctual behavior and biological clocks or circadian rhythms have been shown to be associated with the limbic system of the brain. We may eventually find that the control and monitoring center for all HSPs are associated within these older regions of the brain. This may prove a major breakthrough toward experimentation with higher sensory phenomena.

'Psi is a Greek letter used generically for all types of psychic phenomena.

There is a growing amount of evidence to support the belief that animals do possess sensory capabilities beyond the so-called "normal" senses. One such area is termed "psi-trailing," where an animal finds its way to a new place never visited before and of which it knows nothing. The work of J.B. Rhine and Sara Feather in their investigation and documentation of psi trailing leaves no doubt as to the validity of such happenings. Another area of current investigation is the unusual perception that animals display when they perceive what we would call apparitions.

Dr. Rhine suggests three additional categories of common animal psi, communications: the reaction to the distant distress or death of the animal's owner; anticipation of a positive event such as the return home of the owner after a long absence; and a reaction to impending danger either to the animal itself, or to the animal's owner.

The reaction of the English cats during World War II is an interesting example of the latter. Before radar could pick up the approaching Luftwaffe bombers and alert the city, cats were seen racing for the bomb shelters with the hair raised on their backs, and many Englishmen learned to watch their cats for advanced warning. Before the war ended, the English cats were awarded the Dickin Medal, which was inscribed, "We Also Serve."

The stories are easy to come by; the explanations are scarce. Perhaps the most unfortunate thing about our investigations into the higher sensory capabilities of animals has been our choice of subjects. Investigators have chosen to use either rodents or domestic animals. Rodents (rats, mice, gerbils, and hamsters) are easily accommodated for laboratory study, and while much supportive documentation of psi.communications has resulted from their use, the intellectual capacity of rodents will probably never reflect the true capability of HSP in the animal world.

The majority of our documentation of HSP has been derived from our close association with domestic animals, particularly dogs, cats, and horses. These subjects certainly possess a greater intellectual capacity than rodents, thereby suggesting a greater capacity for demonstrating HSP capability. On the other hand, an organism's capability to utilize certain HSPs is based on much more than its intellectual capacities. Environmental pressures are an equally important consideration. These pressures refine an organism's response to stimuli, thereby developing and reinforcing reliance upon higher sensory perceptions. The efficiency with which an organism utilizes higher sensory channels in response to environmental pressures would logically express itself in a population through the process of natural selection. The greater the environmental pressures on an organism; the greater the refinement of its sensory abilities, and the more consistently the organism applies those perceptions in response to a stimulus. The opposite also holds true. Minimal environmental pressure affords the least opportunity for animals to develop and utilize most HSPs.

There appear to be higher levels of consciousness, which require serenity of mind to achieve, and these levels may be inhabited by environmental stress. Such levels of higher consciousness are likely distinct from those sensory channels which allow an organism to react to an environmental threat. Any apparent contradiction lies in our attempt to combine all unknown sensory channels into the concept of a single sixth sense that is somehow responsible for all things.

Surely there are no animals less subjected to selective environmental pressures than our domesticated dogs, cats, and horses. We have relied upon them for studies of sensory capabilities because they are more easily available than their wild counterparts. When wildlife has been approachable, the circumstances have usually been within the confines of a zoo. Captivity deprives animals of the environments they require for normal behavior. Vincent and Margaret Gaddis address this dilemma in their book, The Strange World of Animals and Pets, when they point out, "to attempt to make intelligence tests of wild creatures after they are imprisoned and their behavior patterns shattered, their senses torpid, and their minds sluggish, is ridiculous. Only in their natural habitat does their natural brilliance shine forth" (Schul 1977:17)

We have found so much support for the existence of HSPs through our familiarity with domestic animals, and yet theoretically, the very circumstances of their domestication should not be conducive for maximizing their capacity for higher sensory development. Yet if we have come to recognize sometimes-remarkable levels of higher sensory development in dogs, what must exist in wolves? If we are impressed with paranormal behavior in house cats, what must exist in mountain lions? When domestic horses baffle scientists with their psi-communication abilities, what will happen when we test for HSP in zebras? What would be the capacity for HSPs for a highly evolved primate, which is dependent entirely upon its own resources and is living in a dwindling environment, which is constantly encroached by a competitive, and threatening species? Theoretically speaking, I would say that the HSP capacity for such an organism would be both highly probable and very well developed.

The capability for most of us to use higher sensory channels is very much reduced from what it must have been during more primitive periods of our history. Consider the possible acuteness of avoidance signals during a time when we faced the continuous threat of predators or aggressive, antagonistic bands of fellow humans. Traces of these skills may still be in evidence when we occasionally "sense someone watching us." Could it not have been these same senses, refined through environmental pressure that kept alive many seasoned plainsmen who often described that they could sense an Indian attack and other dangers of the frontier?

In the 1950s Jim Phelan, a prisoner who served 14 years behind bars, wrote that

The tyro in jail...has to develop new senses, become animal-keen in a thousand ways not known to civilization. Long before the end of my second year I could tell one warder from another, in the dark and at a distance, by his breathing, by his scent, even by the tiny crackings in his joints .... From the way an official clears his throat a long term prisoner will know whether that man is likely to report him for smoking half an hour later--a long-sentence convict is not a person, he is an alert, efficient and predatory animal (Burton 1973:1).

The inability of an organism to perceive messages by a particular sensory mode even when the sensory modality itself remains intact is termed agnosia. Our present civilization has perhaps overemphasized the value of the cerebral cortex because of our reliance on language and our insistence upon rationality. Also, the absence of selective environmental pressures has not genetically favored the continued development of HSP. These combined factors may have contributed most towards a civilization inflicted with psi-agnosia.

Those HSP abilities, which may have affectively declined in us, may very well still be active in a Sasquatch.

We have defined and examined the topic of HSP as it relates to human beings and other animals. In considering what I believe to be the limiting and facilitating factors associated with HSP, it is my hypothesis that the circumstances which surround the Sasquatch phenomenon lend themselves exceptionally well toward considerations of the influence of higher sensory interventions.

It is easy to expand this hypothesis by identifying several theoretical relationships, which might exist between the Sasquatch and such higher sensory abilities as have been discussed.

* There is increasing documentation supporting the existence of unknown sensory channels in both human beings and other animals. If we accept this documentation, we would have to theoretically accept the probability of its occurrence in a Sasquatch.

* For a widespread, large, conspicuous animal living on the edge of civilization, the Sasquatch demonstrates a remarkable capability for avoidance behavior. It is difficult to account for such acute behavior without the assistance of higher sensory channels.

While John Green (1968:17) does not acknowledge the influence of HSPs, he does conclude that they are deliberately avoiding contact with humans, and are very successful in doing so.

* Environmental pressures imposed from declining wild lands, encroaching civilization and increased chances of contact with human beings may serve to refine the development of HSPs in the Sasquatch.

* HSP reflects a type of "subjective" communication, which we may all possess as children but tend to lose as we start to grow up, depend on more language and shift to the left, dominant brain hemisphere. It may be during childhood that we share our closest communication capability with the Sasquatch. This may explain reports of children's interaction with young Sasquatches.

* The degree of any reaction should be proportionate to the magnitude of the threat. Any psi-communication, which warns of impending danger, would receive the most pronounced reaction. If this were true, a Sasquatch would desperately avoid contact with a hunter (which may account for why none have been killed), yet show only moderate response against contact with a berry-picker.

* With wild lands becoming less contiguous due to expanding tracts of civilization, scattered populations of Sasquatches might require psi-communication capabilities to facilitate interspecific contact over extensive distances. This would be no less remarkable than the phenomenon of psi trailing in other animals, which is already well documented.

* The ability of an individual or species to use HSPs should prove to be a selective advantage and would, therefore, be favored genetically in a given population.

* The Sasquatch or its ancestor may have chosen its remote habitation as the result of "competitive exclusion" with a more aggressive competitor. Undoubtedly such an exclusion would have resulted long before its association with modern man. This would suggest an actual evolutionary development might have occurred under the persistent threat of a competitor. The sensory foundations of such a species would be strongly attuned to avoidance and HSPs would have had ample time to perfect themselves toward that end.

I have chosen to introduce what many will consider to be a rather fantastic variable to a subject already embraced in its share of superlatives.

In our analysis we should consider the influence of higher sensory capabilities only as one of many factors, which may contribute, to understanding behavior. I have not chosen to discuss the range of known sensory capabilities as I felt that perspective would already be adequately represented.

I previously cautioned against insisting upon simple solutions to what are likely very complex problems. It is in seeking these simple solutions that we risk masking less accessible categories, which may in many instances provide our best insights into specific problems. We are gaining only the illusion of success when we force a square peg into a round hole. When certain available data fail to fit within the categories of our work board, they should neither be discarded nor forced to fit. Even if we do not drill a new square hole, we should at least leave the square peg in full view. At the present stage of the Sasquatch phenomenon, our theoretical hypotheses may be important in establishing the framework of our investigations. It is hopeful that the Sasquatch investigation will soon shift from the pages of mythology into the physical and behavioral sciences. When increased emphasis is placed upon direct behavioral observations of Sasquatches, collecting data from field observations may not be as easy as it sounds unless we are prepared to apply new methodologies aligned with the problems imposed by HSPs.

References Cited

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Lilly, J. 1961. Man and Dolphin, Garden City New York Doubleday

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Morris, R.L. Animals and ESP. Psychic, October.

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© Vladimir Markotic and Dr. Grover Krantz, 1984
"The Sasquatch and Other Unknown Hominoids,
The Biological and Psychological Aspects of Sasquatch"

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